Class 11th science chemistry (the p-block elements)
In the periodic table, there are six groups of p-block elements from 13 to 18 with an electronic configuration ns2Np1–6. It has all types of elements such as metalloids, non-metal, and metal. Their chemical and physical properties are highly influenced by the difference between the inner core of their electronic configuration . The lighter elements of the group have a quite stable group oxidation state. Heavier elements have more stable lower oxidation states. The heavier elements form dπ–dπ or dπ–pπ bonds whereas the lighter elements form
pπ–pπ bonds.
An example of typical non-metal is boron. Covalent bond formation by using four orbitals (2px, 2s, 2py, 2pz) with the convenience of 3 valence electrons 2s22p1 leads to the electron deficiency in boron compounds. Due to this deficiency, they are a good electron acceptor and therefore behave as Lewis acids. Boranes are formed when boron and dihydrogen form a covalent molecular compound. One simple example is diborane which contains 2 bridging hydrogen atoms between 2 boron atoms.
Some examples of compounds of boron-containing dioxygen are borax and boric acid.
- Boric acid – It is a weak monobasic acid which acts as Lewis acid. It acts as Lewis acid by accepting electrons from hydroxyl ion.
- Borax – It is a white crystalline solid. The borax bead test gives characteristic colors of transition metals.
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself is known as electronegativity. It is a dimensionless property because it is only a tendency. It basically indicates the net result of the tendencies of atoms in different elements to attract the bond forming electron pairs. We measure electronegativity on several scales. The most commonly used scale was designed by Linus Pauling. According to this scale fluorine is the most electronegative element with a value of 4.0 and caesium is the least electronegative element with a value of 0.7.
Electronegativity of elements depends on the following factors:
- Size of an atom: A greater atomic size will result in less value of electronegativity, this happens because electrons being far away from the nucleus will experience lesser force of attraction.
- Nuclear charge: A greater value of nuclear charge will result in greater value of electronegativity. This happens because increase in nuclear charge causes electron attraction with greater force.
Trends in electronegativity
As we move across a period from left to right the nuclear charge increases and the atomic size decreases, therefore the value of electronegativity increases across a period in the modern periodic table. There is an increase in atomic number as we move down the group in the modern periodic table. Nuclear charge also increases but the effect of increase in nuclear charge is overcome by the addition of one shell. Hence the value of electronegativity decreases as we move down the group. For example, in the first group the value decreases as we move from lithium downwards to francium.
It is a general observation that metals show a lower value of electronegativity as compared to the non-metals. Therefore metals are electropositive and non-metals are electronegative in nature. The elements period two differ in properties from their respective group elements due to the small size and higher value of electronegativity.
The elements in second period show resemblance to the elements of the next group in period three. This happens due to a small difference in their electronegativities. This leads to the formation of a diagonal relationship.
What is the Periodic Table?
The periodic table is an arrangement of all the elements known to man in accordance with their increasing atomic number and recurring chemical properties. They are assorted in a tabular arrangement wherein a row is a period and a column is a group.
Elements are arranged from left to right and top to bottom in the order of their increasing atomic numbers. Thus;
- Elements in the same group will have the same valence electron configuration and hence similar chemical properties.
- Whereas, elements in the same period will have an increasing order of valence electrons, therefore, as the energy level of the atom increases, the number of energy sub-levels per energy level increases.
The first 94 elements of the periodic table are naturally occurring, while the rest from 95 to 118 have only been synthesized in laboratories or nuclear reactors.
The modern periodic table, the one we use now, is a new and improved version of certain models put forth by scientists in the 19th and 20th century. Dimitri Mendeleev put forward his periodic table based on the findings of some scientists before him like John Newlands and Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier. But nevertheless, Mendeleev is given sole credit for his development of the periodic table.
Mendeleev Periodic Table
Dimitri Mendeleev, widely referred as the father of the periodic table put forth the first iteration of the periodic table similar to the one we use now. Mendeleev’s periodic law is different from the modern periodic law in one main aspect.
- Mendeleev modeled his periodic table on the basis of increasing atomic mass, whereas, the modern periodic law is based on the increasing order of atomic numbers.
Even though Mendeleev’s periodic table was based on atomic weight, he was able to predict the discovery and properties of certain elements. As during his time only around half of the elements known to us now were known, and most of the information known about the elements were inaccurate. Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was published in the German Journal of chemistry in 1869.
Elements of the Periodic Table:
Chemical Properties of Hydrogen
Physical Properties Of Hydrogen
- It is a gas with no color and odor and has the lowest density of all gases. It is seen as the clean fuel of the future which is generated from water and returned to water when oxidized.
- It is present in water and in almost all molecules in living things. It remains bonded with carbon and oxygen atoms. It can be said that it is the most abundant element in the universe.
- It is present as a gas in the atmosphere in one part per million volume. Hydrogen is an exceptionally clean and is not toxic and safe to produce from various different sources, transport, and store in large amounts.
- It is named as energy carrier because it stores energy which is first created somewhere else.
- This element was artificially produced in the 16th century. It was named as hydrogen whose Greek name is ‘water-former’
What is Hydrogen?
- The start the tour along the periodic table of elements, the first element to come across is Hydrogen, whose chemical symbol is H. It is the first and most basic among all the elements in the universe. It is also the lightest element in the periodic table, and 90% of all the atoms in the universe are hydrogen atoms.
- The chemist Lavoisier gives the name hydrogen. It got its name from the Greek word “hydro” meaning water. Lavoisier knew that it existed in every water molecule.
Uses of Hydrogen
- Ammonia synthesis is the most significant use of hydrogen.
- A large amount of hydrogen is consumed in the catalytic hydrogenation of vegetable oils to extract solid fat.
- It is also consumed as a rocket fuel when combined with oxygen or fluor, and as a rocket propellant by nuclear energy.
- Hydrogen is burnt as a fuel to burn in internal combustion engines.
Chemical Properties of Helium
What is Helium?
- Helium is the element which you can find on the upper right side of the periodic table with atomic number 2. It comes first amongst the family of the noble gases. It holds one atomic orbital and was named by Lockyer and Frankland. Its name is derived from the Greek word “Helios” meaning Sun. Scientists knew there is an enormous amount of helium in the Sun before it was discovered.
- Helium falls under inert gas since its outermost electron orbital is full with two electrons. Helium can also be found in lasers, compressed air tanks and coolant in nuclear reactors. It holds the lowest boiling and melting points among the all other elements. The Nuclear fusion of hydrogen in stars generates a significant amount of helium.
Uses of Helium
- The primary use of Helium goes in altitudes research and meteorological balloons.
- It is utilized as an inert protective gas in autogenous welding.
- It is the only cooler capable of declining temperature lower than 15K (-434ºF).
- Ultralow temperature is main application is the development of superconductivity state wherein the resistance to electricity flux is almost next to zero.
Chemical Properties
What is Lithium?
- Lithium is a chemical element that occurs first in the alkalis of the periodic table .
- It is the lightest solid metal.
- It’s moderately abundant and present in the Earth’s crust in 65 ppm (parts per million).
Uses of Lithium
- Bromine and lithium chloride together form concentrated brine which absorbs the humidity under high temperature. Brine is used in the manufacturing of air conditioning systems.
- Alloys of the metal with manganese, cadmium,copper, and aluminum are used to make aircraft’s parts.
- The carbonate is used in medicine as an antidepressant and pottery industry.
Properties of Lithium
- Lithium takes an active part in many reactions with organic and inorganic reactants. It reacts with oxygen to form monoxide and peroxide.
- Metallic Lithium reacts extremely vigorously with water.
- Among the significant properties of this metal, we can find its high specific heat which is the calorific capacity. Other properties are its enormous temperature interval in the liquid state, high thermal conductivity.
- It has very low density and low viscosity.
- Metallic form of this metal is soluble in aliphatic amines of a short chain like ethylamine but insoluble in hydrocarbons.
Certain Facts About Lithium
- Lithium is found only in salts and minerals. The lithium-ion battery is a key component that is used in many digital devices.
Beryllium
Chemical Properties of Beryllium
What is Beryllium?
- Beryllium is an element with an atomic number of 4 in the periodic table.
- It is a bivalent and highly toxic element.
- The element has one of the highest melting points among the light metals.
- Beryllium exists in 30 different minerals, among which bertrandite, beryl, chrysoberyl, and phenacite are the most important.
Uses of Beryllium
- Beryllium is used as an alloying agent.
- It possesses high strength, non-magnetic properties, better resistance, and dimensionally stable over a significant range of temperature.
- Beryllium fused with copper forms alloys which are used in defense and aerospace industries is a typical application of Beryllium.
Properties of Beryllium
- It is nonmagnetic, holds excellent thermal conductivity and resists attack by concentrated nitric acid.
- Beryllium resists oxidation when exposed to air at standard temperature and pressure.
- It is found in 30 different minerals of which bertrandite, phenakite, and Beryl are the most important.
- Beryllium content in the ground can pass into the plants grown on it when it is in a soluble form.
Certain Facts About Beryllium
- Aquamarine and emerald are the most precious forms of beryl. Beryl is the mineral form of beryllium aluminium cyclosilicate.
- X-ray detection diagnostic uses of Beryllium as it could pass through latter .
Chemical Properties of Boron
What is Boron?
- Boron is a chemical element with atomic number five and it is a low abundant element that is found in the earth’s crust and solar system. Boron is a metalloid.
Uses of Boron
- Sodium tetraborate decahydrate or borax is the most important compound of boron, which is used to insulate fiberglass and sodium perborate bleach.
- Boric acid is one of the important compounds in textile products. Boron compounds are also used in organic synthesis, a particular type of glass manufacture and as a wood preservative.
- Borax was earlier used to make perborate, which is the bleaching agent widely used in some detergents.
- Boron compounds are also found in homes in the form of food preservatives, especially for fish and margarine.
Properties of Boron
- It’s a poor conductor of electricity and can also be found in ceramics, flare guns, and fiber glasses.
- Boron has several forms and amorphous boron which are a dark powder and unreactive to oxygen, water, alkalis, and acids are the most common. It forms borides when reacts with metals.
Certain Facts About Boron
- Boron is present in over hundred minerals on Earth. But it is extremely difficult to produce, even in laboratory conditions.
- Boromycin is a boron-based natural antibiotic. It is a derivative of Streptomyces.
Chemical Properties of Carbon
What is Carbon?
- Carbon compounds are present everywhere i.e. in the food that we eat, the clothes that we wear and even in the lead of the pencil by which we write.
- The atomic number of carbon is 6 and atomic mass is 12.01gmol-1.
- Represented by the symbol C and present in the 14th group of elements in the periodic table .
- According to the data, it is the seventeenth most abundant element found on earth.
- It is found in both free as well as in the combined state. You can find it available as coal, graphite in the elemental state. Whereas it is present as metal carbonates, hydrocarbons, and carbon dioxide gas in the combined state. When it combines with other elements such as dihydrogen, dioxygen, chlorine, and sulfur provides amazing arrays of materials that can vary from tissues to medicines.
Uses of Carbon
- One of the most amazing properties of carbon is its ability to make long carbon chains and rings. This property of carbon is known as catenation. Carbon has many special abilities out of all one unique ability is that carbon forms pπ-pπ bonds which are nothing but double or triple bonds with itself and with other electronegative atoms like oxygen and nitrogen. Just because of these two properties of carbon i.e catenation and multiple bond formation, it has a number of allotropic form.
Chemical Properties of Nitrogen
What is Nitrogen?
- The seventh element of the periodic table between carbon and oxygen is Nitrogen.
- It’s an important part of amino acids.
- Around eighty percent of the Earth’s atmosphere comprises of nitrogen gas.
- It has no color, mostly diatomic nonmetal gas along with odorless and colorless in nature.
- Since it has five electrons in its outer shell, most of its compounds are trivalent.
- It is a constituent of all living tissues. Since it is a component of DNA and part of a genetic code, it is an essential element of life.
- It is found in nitrates and nitrites in soil and water.
- All these substances are part of the nitrogen cycle and interconnected. Industrial companies emit nitrogen extensively, increasing nitrite and nitrate content in the ground and water, being the consequence of reactions in the nitrogen cycle.
Uses of Nitrogen
- It is used in the manufacture of ammonia, to produce nitric acid and subsequently used as a fertilizer.
- Nitric acid salts include important compounds like potassium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. Nitrated organic compounds such as nitroglycerine are often explosives.
- Liquid nitrogen is utilized as a refrigerant for transporting foodstuff and freezing purpose. Preservation of bodies and reproductive cells and stable storage of biological samples also makes use of liquid nitrogen.
Chemical Properties of Oxygen
What is Oxygen?
- Oxygen is a member of the chalcogen group on the periodic table. It is an essential element in the most of the combustion processes.
- It is one of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust.
Uses of Oxygen
- It is used in the production and manufacturing of glass and stone products, and in mining.
- Special oxygen chambers are used in case of high pressure to increase the partial pressure of oxygen around the patient.
- The primary applications of oxygen include melting, refining, and manufacture of steel along with other metals.
Properties of Oxygen
- The gas is colorless, odorless and insipid in a normal state. Liquid oxygen is slightly paramagnetic. It is reactive and forms oxides with every element except helium , neon, krypton, and argon. It is moderately soluble in water.
- Dioxygen is one of the common allotropes of oxygen.
- Trioxygen is the most reactive allotrope of oxygen that would cause damage to lung tissue. This allotrope is termed as ozone.
Certain Facts About Oxygen
- O-16, O-17, and O-18 are the three naturally occurring stable isotopes of Oxygen.
- Oxygen is characterized by a paramagnetic property.
Chemical Properties of Fluorine
What is Fluorine?
- The element Fluorine is a poisonous gas.
- It usually exists as fluoride ion F- in aqueous solution
- It remains in the air for long when attached to tiny particles.
Uses of Fluorine
- Molecular fluorine and Atomic fluorine are used in semiconductor manufacturing for plasma etching, MEMs fabrication, and flat panel display production.
- Chlorofluorocarbons are used extensively used in air conditioners and refrigerators.
- Fluorides are also added to toothpaste to prevent dental cavities.
- The metal could be used to map the circulatory system and any disorders.
- Proposedly could be used in the optoelectric nuclear batteries.
Properties of Fluorine
- Fluorine exists naturally in the earth’s crust and found in coal, clay, and rocks.
- Hydrogen fluorides are released into the air by the industries through the processes of combustion.0.6 ppb of fluorine is present as organic chloride compounds and salt spray in the atmosphere.
- The element has been recorded around 50 ppb in city environments.
Certain Facts About Fluorine
- The 13th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust is Fluoride.
- Fluorine is reactive with other elements which can combine with nearly any element on Earth.
- Even water burn in fluorine with a bright flame along with finely divided metals like glass, ceramics, and carbon.
Chemical Properties of Neon
What is Neon?
- Neon is reddish-orange colored in neon lamps and vacuum discharge tubes and second-lightest noble gas. It is less expensive refrigerant than helium in many applications. Its refrigerating capacity is 40 times more than liquid helium and three times to liquid hydrogen on per unit volume basis. It is a rare gas, and its molecules consist of a single Neon atom.
- It is chemically inert gas and non-toxic in nature. There is no threat to the environment and has no impact since it’s nonreactive and does not form compounds. This element cause no ecological damage.
- It can create exotic compounds with fluorine in laboratories, being an inert element. It also forms an unstable hydrate.
Uses of Neon
- The reddish-orange colored neon lights are used in making advertising signs. It’s also utilized in these types of lights generally when many other gasses are needed to generate lights of different colors.
- Other uses of neon include lightning arrestors, high-voltage indicators, television tubes and meter tubes.
- Gas lasers are made with the help of neon and helium. .
Chemical Properties of Sodium
What is Sodium?
- Sodium is a member of alkali metal family with lithium and potassium. Being one of the two elements in our table salt is it’s the biggest claim to fame.
- We get sodium chloride (NaCl) when sodium bonds with chlorine (Cl). It is also used as a salt in fertilizers.
- Sodium is reactive, soft metal with a low melting point and most important of all the alkaline metals from the commercial point of view. Sodium reacts rapidly with water, snow, and ice to produce sodium hydroxide.
- When metallic sodium is exposed to air, it loses its silver appearance and develops an opaque gray color layer which is a coating of sodium oxide. Sodium does not react with nitrogen even at very high temperatures but reacts with ammonia to form sodium amide.
- Sodium reacts with hydrogen above 200ºC to form sodium hydride. It also reacts with various metallic halides to form sodium chloride and the metal.
- With an atomic number of 11, it is represented by the symbol Na in the periodic table.
Uses of Sodium
- It also used in improving the structure of certain alloys; soaps, purification of molten metals and in sodium vapour lamps.
- Sodium is a component of sodium chloride, which is very important compound found in the living environment.
- Sodium is important in the manufacturing of organic compounds and in making esters.
- Solid sodium carbonate is required in making glass.
Chemical Properties of Magnesium
What is Magnesium?
- Magnesium is the most chemically active element. In boiling water, the place of hydrogen is taken by Magnesium and a number of metals can be produced using thermal reduction of its salts and oxidised forms with magnesium. We find Magnesium in the second position in the periodic table. We have been using Magnesium since a hundred years, in bonded form. It was only when a Chemist, Sir Humphry Davy purified and isolated the metal. Since it was found in the bonded form in nature, Magnesium took so long to isolate.
- Magnesium is labelled as the eighth most abundant element and about 2% of earth’s crust is constituted by Magnesium. In seawater, it is the most plentiful element present. It is not only found in seawater but also in underground brines and salty layers. After aluminum and iron, magnesium is the third most abundant structural metal in the earth’s crust.
Uses of Magnesium
- Magnesium is used by scientist in medicine. It is used to treat widely in skin related problems and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), anxiety, mania, recovery after surgery etc.
- The green leafy vegetable is an excellent source of Magnesium. Whole grain, seeds, and nuts (Mainly almonds) are also a great source of Magnesium.
- The flashbulbs also contain Magnesium. When Mg burns, it produces a bright light that helps the photographers to take photos in the dark.
Chemical Properties of Aluminum
What is Aluminum?
- Aluminium is a soft, silvery-white, ductile, nonmagnetic metal in the boron group. It is the third most abundant element in the Earth’s crust. Depending on the surface reference, aluminum appears in the range from silvery to dull gray.
Uses of Aluminum
- It is used in the transportation of railway, trucks, automobiles as castings.
- It is used in packaging.
- Al(II) compounds are observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants.
- Using aluminon the presence of aluminum can be detected in qualitative analysis.
Properties of Aluminum
- The element is highly reactive. It has about one-third of stiffness and density of steel.
- Aluminium has good corrosion resistivity.
- It is capable of superconductivity.
- They are many unknown isotopes of hydrogen with the mass number ranging from twenty-one to forty-one.
Chemical Properties of Silicon
What is Silicon?
- Silicon (Si) is a close relative of carbon (C) in the periodic table .
- The element could be traced universally in our world but is not found individually in our environment.
- A silicon Atom comprises of 14 electrons
Polymers Of Silicon
Silanes
Silanes is comprised of homologous series of silicon hydrides and they are very strong reducing agents. They catch fire very easily and are very reactive when exposed in air. They are not stable in room temperature.
Silicides
Silicides have structures which are similar to carbides and borides and therefore, the heats of formation are usually similar to that of carbides and borides of same elements.
Silica
These are also known as silicon dioxide and its major constituents are granite and sandstone.
Halides
Silicon carbides and silicon react with stable halogens forming silicon tetrahalides. These silicon tetrahalides readily hydrolyze in water, unlike carbon tetrahalides.
Silicate Minerals
About 95% of the earth’s rocks constitute of the silicate minerals. If the mass is taken into consideration, then around 28% is of the earth’s crust consists of silicon.
Silicic Acids
Increasing the concentration of water results in the formation of hydrated silica gels. Most of the silica acids exist in aqueous solutions.
Uses of Silicon
- The element is a major constituent in ceramics and bricks.
- Being a semiconductor, the element is put into use for making transistors.
- Silicon is used in a different manner in computer chips and solar cells.
Properties of Silicon
- Silicon could be found attached to other elements, for instance, oxygen (O).
- Silicates are the rocks which contain both silicon and oxygen.
- When decontaminated, it is a grayish crystal that looks metallic.
- Although it may be glistening like metal, it is not a metal.
Certain Facts About Silicon
- Silicon was isolated and forced to develop its first crystals in the year 1854.
- In the periodic table, one can find silicon just underneath carbon in the third row of the periodic table.
- Silicon’s electrons are arranged in a makeup comparable to carbon.
Chemical Properties
What is Phosphorus?
- Despite the fact that for thousands of years people have been using the periodic table with phosphorus (P) in it, it was not until 1669 that it was secluded and termed by a chemist named Brand.
- Phosphorus is an element that one will under no circumstances find freely in our environment. It is extremely reactive.
Uses Of Phosphorus
- There are four forms of phosphorous usually used these days: white, black, red, and violet.
- It’s simple to spot phosphorus at position number fifteen on the periodic table just under nitrogen (N).
- One can also find phosphorus in fireworks, fertilizers, and baking powder.
- Phosphorus also plays a role in the making of steel.
- Phosphates are also used in the production of fine chinaware and special glasses.
Chemical Properties Of Sulfur
What is Sulfur?
- Sulfur (S) is an element that can never be overlooked. In the periodic table, sulfur is found in group 16. It is non-metal and is obtained as a byproduct after the production of natural gas. In color, it is bright yellow, and it has an extremely bad odor (like rotten eggs). Outside the apparent physical characters of sulfur, humans have been consuming this element since a thousand years. Why? Because you might just find it sitting on the ground.
- Sulfur is frequently found near hot springs and volcanoes. In history, when an individual finds unadulterated elements that are freely obtainable, he uses them. Sulfur mentions can be found even in the Bible, where it is entitled brimstone.
Uses Of Sulfur
- Sulfur is an element that is simple to find on the ground and even simpler to discover in the periodic table. It’s just below oxygen (O) at the sixteenth position. Sulfur, when found naturally, is a yellowish color and is frequently found as crystal. Sulfur is non-reactive at normal temperatures.
Chlorine
What is Chlorine?
Chlorine is the second lightest halogen and is represented as Cl. The atomic number of this chemical element is 17. It appears as a pale yellow-green gas. Liquid chlorine can cause skin burn and chlorine in its gaseous form irritates the mucous membrane. Its position as per the periodic table is between fluorine and bromine. Its electronic configuration is [Ne]3s23p5. There are two isotopes of chlorine that are stable. They are 37Cl and 35Cl. 36Cl is the stable radioisotope of chlorine. Sodium chloride is the most common compound of chlorine whereas the simplest is hydrogen chloride. Sodium chloride has a molecular formula NaCl whereas hydrogen chloride has a molecular formula HCl. It is highly reactive. Carl Wilhelm Scheele who was a Swedish chemist discovered Chlorine in the year 1774.
Properties of Chlorine – Cl
Chlorine structure – Cl
Cl Uses (Chlorine)
- It is used to get rid of the smell of putrefaction
- It is used as a disinfectant
- Chlorine is used in the treatment of drinking water to kill bacteria
- It is used to clean swimming pools
- It is used in the production of paper and paper products
- It is used as an antiseptic
- It is used to produce drugs
- It is used in the manufacture of dyes and plastics.
Chemical Properties Of Argon
What is Argon?
- Argon is a chemical element in the eighteen group of the periodic table. It is a noble gas and it it is the third most abundant gas in earth’s atmosphere.
Uses Of Argon
- They are used in metal industries.
- It is used in the production of titanium
- It is used in double dazzled windows to fill the space between the panels.
Properties Of Argon
- It is odourless, colourless gas that is totally inert into other substance.
- Under extreme conditions, argon can form certain compounds even though it is a gas.
- It is characterised by same solubility level in water as that of oxygen.
- It has low thermal conductivity.
Certain Facts About Argon
- Argon was suspected to be present in air by Henry Cavendish in the year 1785.
- According to Chimcool, the majority of argon is the isotope argon-40 which emerge from radioactive decay of potassium-40.
Chemical Properties
What is Potassium?
- Potassium is the first element of the fourth period (row) in the periodic table.
- The term potassium arises from a material called Potash.
- The element has been in use for hundreds of years.
- It is an alkali metal along with lithium, rubidium, sodium, cesium, and francium
- It is a very active metal and never occurs free in nature and it always forms a compound with other elements.
Isotopes Of Potassium
Potassium usually has three isotopes, it goes by the name of potassium-39, 40 and 41. The potassium-40 is highly radioactive and can be found in rocks, plants, and animals. It is used to measure the age of objects. This isotope breaks down into an isotope of argon.
Uses Of Potassium
- It can be used as a medium of heat exchange and are used in nuclear power plants because of this reason
- People use the potassium salts as a constituent of fertilizer.
- It is one of the essential nutrients of the human body
- Potassium chloride is also used in injections.
- Potash can be used to make glass and soap etc
Physical and Chemical Properties Of Potassium
- It is soft and shiny metal which has a melting point 63 degrees and the boiling point as 770 degrees.
- Potassium metal can float on water
- It reacts with water violently and gives hydrogen which can actually catch fire and may explode
- It can readily react with chlorine, fluorine, sulfur, nitrogen and phosphorous.
- It has a green vapour and lavender cloured flame
- It is ranked as the 7th most abundant element present in the earth’s crust.
- The element is always traced in combination with other elements.
- Once isolated, potassium turns into a malleable metal with a silver color profile.
- Potassium reacts with water violently and gives off hydrogen gas
Certain Facts About Potassium
- The symbol of Potassium (K) signifies the term Kalium.
- It is an ancient term used to label the element and has its roots in the term “alkali.”
- Like the other elements in the first column, potassium is an associate of the alkali group with cesium and sodium.
- It was the first metal to get isolated by electrolysis.
Chemical Properties Of Calcium
What is Calcium?
- Calcium with the atomic number 20 is represented in the periodic table with the symbol Ca.
- Calcium (Ca) is a vital element that aids our bones stay tough and capable of supporting our load.
- Calcium is also used by our nervous system to help transmit impulses through our body.
Uses Of Calcium
- The element maintains the vital for bones and teeth.
- The element assists in the movement of muscles by helping to carry messages from the brain to all parts of the body.
- The ions of the element act as carriers of between cells in the form of multicellular life forms.
- The element aids in assisting hormones to release along with enzymes.
Properties Of Calcium
- The element is the fifth most abundant metal in the planet’s crust (4.1%).
- Traced in large amounts as gypsum (calcium sulfate), limestone (calcium carbonate), apatite (calcium chloro- or fluoro-phosphate) and fluorite (calcium fluoride).
- Dissolved calcium bicarbonate is found in hard water.
Certain Facts About Calcium
- Since before the Greeks and Romans, humans have known about calcium and compounds that contain calcium.
- Romans made use of lime in their concrete and termed it “Calx.”
- Davy was the original chemist to separate pure calcium in 1808.
- Once the element is refined, it would turn tougher as a silver-colored metal.
Chemical Properties Of Scandium
What is Scandium?
- Scandium is an element with the atomic number 21 and represented with the symbol ‘Sc‘ in the periodic table .
- Scandium is mined from one of the rare minerals from Scandinavia. The colour it develops when exposed to air is yellowish or pinkish cast. One of the characteristics of Scandium is it gets tarnished and burned easily if ignited. It also reacts with hydrogen gas and will dissolve in acids.
- Heating scandium fluoride (ScF3) with calcium metal produces pure Scandium. This rare chemical can be found in a house in equipment like glasses, energy saving lamps, fluorescent lamps, television.
- Scandium has been shown to reduce solidification cracking during welding of high-strength aluminium alloys. Usage of scandium is increasing as is a well-suited catalyzer to polish glass. Aluminium scandium alloys are the primary application for the aerospace industry and sports equipment (like baseball, bikes, etc.)
- Scandium occurs in a very small amount in nature. It has been labelled as the 50th most abundant element on Earth, distributed widely in trace quantities in over 800 minerals. The total production will amount to only 50 kg per year.
Uses Of Scandium
- This transition metal has been heard to have only a few uses owing to their limited availability and high costs.
- Since it has a high melting point and low density, it would be mainly used in the form of an alloying agent in the category of metals (lightweight) for applications of high performance and military purposes.
- Apart from this, this metal is widely used as an alloy additive to alloys that are aluminium based for making metal halide lamps of high intensity and sporting goods.
- Scandium would limit the grain growth of high temperature, once alloyed with aluminium and aluminium based ones.
Properties Of Scandium
- The metal has silvery white appearance while having a moderately soft texture.
- Owing to the formation of Sc2O3oxide on its surface, its stability in air changes slowly to a yellowish form.
- Except for hydrofluoric acid (HF) that has a protective trifluoride layer that deters additional reaction, this metal dissolves slowly in acids that are diluted.
- The metal has a paramagnetic nature viz. from 0 K −273 °C/−460 °F) to the melting point of 1,541 °C/ 2,806 °F.
- Once the pressure exceeds 186 kilobars, the metal turns into a superconductor at −273.1 °C (−459.6 °F).
Certain Facts About Scandium
- The metal is named after Scandinavia by its discoverer Lars Fredrik Nilson in 1879
- Until 1960, 99.9 percent of the metal was not isolated.
- The metal is the fiftieth most abundant element on the planet.
- Its existence was originally predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev ten years before its actual discovery in mendeleev periodic table.
- Scandium has thirteen isotopes.
- Most isotopes of this metal have a half-life of two minutes or less.
Chemical Properties Of Titanium
What is Titanium ?
- Titanium with an atomic number of 22 is found in the periodic table with the symbol ‘Ti’.
- Titanium is a lustrous silver-colored transition metal named after the Titans of Greek mythology.
- Discovered in 1791 in Cornwall, Great Britain by William Gregor.
- Titanium is less dense than steel but is equally strong.
- Ranking ninth on the list of most abundant metals on earth.
Uses Of Titanium
- Since titanium is one of those materials that resist corrosion, it is used mostly around salt water. The desalination plants that take in seawater and make fresh water are likely to equip a few pieces made with titanium.
- Aircraft: Being strong and lightweight, Titanium is considered perfect for aircraft usage that needed lightweight metals so that it would be easy to lift and fly.
- Paints: Titanium oxide is one of many compounds that is used in many paints.
- Rocks and Minerals: Titanium is actually found as a form of a compound, which is purified and then used in industries for various purposes.
- Star Sapphire: Expensive gems like star sapphires have titanium in them.
Vanadium (V)
Chemical Properties Of Vanadium
What is Vanadium (V)?
- A rare, soft, ductile gray-white colored element, which is found combined with minerals and is used to produce alloys like ferrovanadium. Due to the presence of a protective film of oxides on the surface, it helps with metal corrosion.
- In the periodic table , Vanadium is found just to the right side of the titanium. A scientist by the name of Del Rio from Mexico was the first person to discover Vanadium in the year 1901. Later this element was named after a Scandinavian Goddess name Vanadis by Sweden scientist Nils Sefstrom.
Applications purification
- Purification: Vanadium is used in nuclear power plants and in several other purification processes.
- Uranium Purification: Vanadium is one of the many elements used in the purification of Uranium that is used for nuclear purposes.
- Springs and alloys: The physical characteristics of vanadium makes it useful to manufacture springs. Vanadium is also used to make steel alloys in industries.
- Magnets: The specialized kind of magnets that are used for advanced research functions with superconducting capabilities contains vanadium. They are used because of their unique physical properties and cannot be fabricated easily.
- Ceramics: Traces are found in ceramics, sometimes also in paints and dyes.
Chemical Properties Of Chromium
What is Chromium?
- Chromium is a chemical element with atomic number 24 and represented by the symbol Cr in the periodic table.
- Chromium is a lustrous, hard metal which has a silver-grey color. It has a high melting point.
- Trivalent chromium is a vital nutrient that is found in traces sugar, human insulin, and lipid metabolism.
Uses Of Chromium
- Electroplating: It is one of the important uses of chromium. Have you seen the shiny caps over the tires of a car? That shiny plating is made using chromium.
- Emeralds: A small amount of chromium is found in the crystal lattice structure of expensive gems like the emerald.
- New alloys: are formed using chromium. You might have seen chromium on the outside, but it is also mixed with metals to form alloys. Stainless steel and aluminium alloys use a small amount of chromium.
- Paints and Dyes: This useful element is also found in paint and dyes and chemical makeup that is used for fabrics.
Properties Of Chromium
- Chromium burns when heated and the compound that it forms is a green chromic oxide.
- Chromium protects the metal below by immediately producing a thin oxide layer that is impermeable to oxygen.
- One of the important characteristics of chromium is that it won’t get rusted easily, and thus this element is great for electroplating.
Certain Facts About Chromium
- Chromium was used by ancient Chinese.
- About eighty percent of chromium that is produced annually goes towards the production of metal alloy.
Chemical Properties Of Manganese
What is Manganese?
- Manganese, a chemical element that has a symbol Mn and atomic number 25.
- This element is not found as a free element in nature but available in combination with iron and other minerals.
- It is a metal that has important metal alloy uses and particularly in stainless steel.
Uses Of Manganese
- Manganese is used to produce a variety of important alloys and to deoxidize steel and desulfurize.
- It is also used in dry cell batteries.
- Manganese is used as a black-brown pigment in paint.
- It is an essential trace element for living creatures.
- It is mainly used to decolorize glass and to prepare violet colored glass.
- Steel contains 1% manganese to increase the strength and improve the workability.
- Manganese steel has 13% manganese which is very strong and used for railway tracks, rifle barrels, safes and prison bars.
- Drink cans are made from an alloy of aluminum that contains 1.5% manganese, improving the resistance to corrosion.
- Manganese is also used as a catalyst, decolorize the glass that is colored green by iron impurities.
- Manganese sulfate is used to make a fungicide.
Properties Of Manganese
- Manganese is a gray-white, hard and very brittle metal.
- It tarnished on exposure to air and oxidized to manganese when heated.
Certain Facts About Manganese
- Manganese is more reactive when available in pure form, and as a powder, it will burn in oxygen to react with water and dissolves in dilute acids.
Chemical Properties Of Iron
What is iron?
- Iron is a metal, an element of group VIII of the periodic table. It is a lustrous, ductile, malleable, silver-gray in color. It is the tenth most abundant element in the universe. It is found in a major amount at the core of the Earth in a molten form.
Uses Of iron
- It is used to manufacture steel and also used in civil engineering like reinforced concrete, girders etc.
- Iron is used to make alloy steels like carbon steels with additives such as nickel, vanadium, tungsten, and manganese.
- These are used to make bridges, electricity pylons, bicycle chains, cutting tools and rifle barrels.
- Cast iron contains 3–5% carbon. It is used for pipes, valves, and pumps.
- Iron catalysts are used in the Haber process for producing ammonia.
- Magnets can be made of this metal and its alloys and compounds.
Properties Of iron
- It rusts in damp air, but not in the dry air.
- It dissolves readily in dilute acids.
- At room temperature, this metal is in the form of ferrite or α-form.
- At 910°C, it changes to γ-iron, which is much softer in nature.
- It melts at 1536°C and boils at 2861°C.
- Being a metal is magnetic in nature.
Certain Facts About Iron
- An average human body contains about 4 grams of this iron in the form of hemoglobin, in the blood.
- It is the 6th most common element in the universe.
- There are four known allotropic forms of iron.
Chemical Properties Of Cobalt
What is Cobalt?
- The element Cobalt belongs to the group VIII of the periodic table. It is similar to iron and nickel in its physical properties. Cobalt is found in plants and animals, air, water, soil, rocks. It may also enter into another environment through wind-blown dust or by rainwater washing down cobalt containing soil and rock.
Uses Of Cobalt
- Cobalt is used in many alloys & super alloys to make parts in aircraft engines, gas turbine, high-speed steels, corrosion resistant alloys, cemented carbides.
- It is used in magnets and magnetic recording media.
- It is also used as catalysts for the petroleum and chemical industries.
- Used as drying agents for paints and inks.
- It is blue is majorly used by artists and is used by craft workers in porcelain, stained glass pottery, enamel jeweler, and tiles.
- The radioactive isotopes, cobalt-60, is used in medical treatment and also to irradiate food. It is used in order to preserve the food and protect the consumer.
Properties Of Cobalt
- It is a hard ferromagnetic, silver-white, lustrous, brittle element.
- It is stable in air and does not react with water.
- Like other metals, it can also be magnetized.
- With dilute acids, it reacts slowly.
- The metal melts at 1495 °C and boils at 2927 °C.
Chemical Properties Of Nickel
What is Nickel?
- Nickel is a transition metal, with an atomic weight of 28, located in the fourth period/row on the ero of elements. It is an essential nutrient for the body but it’s over intake can cause harm. Humans can infect by breathing in infected air or drinking such water or eating such food or smoking cigarettes. Too much of nickel consumption can cause Lung cancer, Nose cancer, Larynx cancer and Prostate cancer.
Uses Of Nickel
- The most crucial use of this element is that it is used to make coins.
- It is used in making wires.
- It is used in gas turbines and rocket engines as it has the capability to resist corrosion even at high temperature.
- It is used to make a variety of alloys which are further used to make armor plating, nails, or pipes.
- Monel (alloys of nickel and copper), is a hard compound and can resist corrosion by seawater. Hence, it is used in propeller shaft in boats and desalination plants.
Properties Of Nickel
- Nickel is silvery-white, hard, malleable, and ductile metal.
- It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
- It is bivalent, that is it has a valency of two.
- The metal dissolves slowly in dilute acids.
- It’s melting point is 1453 °C and boiling point is 2913 °C.
Certain Facts About Nickel
- As it is radioactive metal, it is toxic and harmful to life.
- The compound of 99Tc is very contaminative in nature and hazardous for life.
- One must use a safety glove box while handling the chemical.
Chemical Properties Of Copper
What is Copper?
- For thousands of years, Copper is a metal that has been a part of our civilization. Silver, gold, copper, and Iron all have been made use in one way or another.
- Copper(Cu) is one of those elements that were never actually discovered. They have been a part of each footstep in the growth of civilization. We keep on learning the diverse places where copper is made use of in nature.
- The metal has been used for such an extended time as it can be found secluded as an unadulterated element. One could be tunnelling in a mine and stumble across unadulterated copper in various forms.
- It is the 29th element in the periodic table represented by the symbol ‘Cu‘ short for the Latin name ‘cuprum’.
Uses Of Copper
- Copper sulphate is used widely as an agricultural poison and as an algicide in water purification.
- While one may not consider copper being used for something other than coins, it is a crucial element in the creation of bronze.
- Historically, copper was the first metal to be worked by people. The discovery that it could be hardened with a little tin to form the alloy bronze gave the name to the Bronze Age.
Certain Facts About Copper
- Copper is an essential element. An adult human needs around 1.2 milligrams of copper a day, to help enzyme transfer energy in cells. Excess copper is toxic.
Chemical Properties Of Zinc
What is Zinc?
- Zinc is a transition earth metal with atomic number 30 and represented in the Periodic Table with the symbol ‘Zn’
- Zinc is one more of those advantageous metals that we make use of daily.
- It is part of those elements which humans have been expanding for thousands of years.
Uses Of Zinc
- The metal is used for manufacturing like creating roofing materials or making zinc oxide.
- The metallic element is used for various purposes ranging from sunscreens to solar cells to nuclear reactors.
- The metal helps in maintaining the balance of enzymes in the human body.
Properties Of Zinc
- Zinc is generally seen as part of larger compound minerals.
- When secluded, it is a very sparkly, whitish-blue metal.
- The metal is not as soft as copper and has lesser uses.
Certain Facts About Zinc
- In 1746, Marggraf secluded and defined zinc as a distinct metal.
- In the fourth period or row in the periodic table of elements, zinc is the last transition element.
Chemical Properties Of Gallium
What is Gallium?
- Gallium is a chemical element with atomic number 31. The Solid gallium is of blue-gray metal having orthorhombic crystalline structure whereas a very pure gallium is coated with stunning silvery color.
- It does not exist in pure form in nature, and its compounds do not act as a primary source of extraction
Uses Of Gallium
- It is used in Blue-ray technology, blue and green LEDs, mobile phones and pressure sensors for touch switches.
- Gallium nitride acts as a semiconductor. It consists of certain properties that make it very versatile.
Properties Of Gallium
- This metal can be easily extracted as a by-product from iron pyrites, zinc blende, germanite, and bauxite.
- It is solid at room temperature but when it comes in contact with cesium, mercury, and rubidium it becomes liquid (when heated slightly).
- This element has been considered as a possible heat exchange medium in nuclear reactors.
Certain Facts About Gallium
- When Gallium is added to certain metals it causes them to become brittle.
- Gallium has one of the largest ranges in which it is a liquid when compared to other metals.
Chemical Properties Of Germanium
What is Germanium?
- Germanium, a chemical element places between silicon and tin in Group 14 of the periodic table.
- A hard, gray-white, lustrous and brittle metalloid acts in properties between metals and nonmetals.
- The element is mostly distributed in nature, but it’s too reactive to occur free.
- Germanium has a diamond-like structure and is very similar to physical and chemical properties of silicon.
- It is stable in air and water and does not get affected by alkalis and acids except nitric acid.
- There are primary minerals which include germanite, argyrodite, Canfield site, and renierite. Only renierite and germanite have been used as commercial sources for the element.
- Some of the trace quantities of germanium are found in various zinc blended minerals– some in sulfidic ores of arsenic and copper & some coals.
Uses Of Germanium
- Germanium acts as a semiconductor, commonly doped with arsenic and other elements and used as a transistor in different electronic applications.
- The oxides of Germanium includes a high index of dispersion and refraction which makes it perfect to use in wide-angle camera lenses & objective lenses for microscopes.
- It is also used as an alloying agent in contact with fluorescent lamps and as a catalyst.
- As both the germanium and germanium oxides are transparent to infrared radiation, these are used in infrared spectroscopes.
Chemical Properties Of Arsenic
What is Arsenic?
- Arsenic, a chemical element placed in the nitrogegroup of the periodic table that exists in both the gray and yellow crystalline forms. It is present in three allotropic forms- black, yellow and gray. A silver-gray and brittle crystalline solid are the stable forms. It gets tarnished rapidly when comes in contact with air and at high temperatures by preparing a white cloud of arsenic trioxide. The metallic form of the element is brittle and it gets tarnished when oxidized to arsenic trioxide. Its non-metallic form is less reactive but easily dissolves when heated with strong oxidizing acids and alkalis.
- Arsenic is a steel-gray, brittle solid with low thermal and electrical conductivity. There are some forms of elemental arsenic are metal-like and is best classified as a non-metal. Some other forms are also there but are not properly characterized. This element sublimes at 613 °C and it exists as As4 molecules. It is stable in dry air and in moist air it tends to become coated with a black oxide. The sublimed arsenic vapor heated in air to form an arsenic oxide.
Uses Of Arsenic
- This element is mainly used in compounds and a smaller amount is used in alloys.
- It is also used to prepare lead shot in past and the amount used in these applications continues to decrease.
- Arsenic can easily get into the environment from such applications. Some amount is added to sillicon and germanium to make transistors.
- Gallium arsenide, a compound of arsenic is used to make light-emitting diodes (LEDs). These LEDs produce the lighted numbers in the clock, watches, hand-held calculators and different other electronic devices.
Chemical Properties Of Selenium
What is Selenium?
- Selenium is a chemical element that is placed in the xygen group of the periodic table. It is often found in combination with metals like mercury, copper, silver or lead. It is combined with the physical properties of elements like tellurium and sulfur. This element is rare and composed of 90 parts per billion of the Earth crust. It’s a non-metallic chemical element which is a member of the group 16 of the periodic table.
- This element appears in different allotropic forms of which the most popular are – red amorphous powder, a gray crystalline metal, and a red crystalline material, which is known as a metallic selenium. This gray crystalline form conducts electricity much better in the light than in the dark and can be easily used in photocells. It burns in air and is unaffected by water and dissolves in concentrated nitric acid and alkalis.
Uses Of Selenium
- It serves as a decolorizer when incorporated in small amounts into the glass. When in large quantity, it imparts to glass a useful clear red color in signal lights. It is also used in preparing red enamels for steel and ceramics. And, for vulcanization of rubber to increase resistance to abrasion.Its electrical resistivity of selenium varies over a great range that depends on variables like temperature & pressure, nature of the allotrope, impurities and the method of refining. Most of the metals are insoluble in this element and the impurities of a non-metallic increase the resistivity.
Chemical Properties Of Bromine
What is Bromine?
- Bromine is a chemical element with the appearance of a deep red, noxious liquid being one of the members of the halogen elements of the periodic table.
- This element has an appreciable vapor pressure at room temperature.
Uses Of Bromine
- Bromine is a good oxidizing agent like other chlorine water and more useful as it does not decompose readily.
- It also liberates free iodine from iodide- containing solutions and sulfur from hydrogen sulfide.
- Sulfurous acid is oxidized to sulfuric acid by bromine water.
Properties Of Bromine
- The electron affinity of this metal is very high and much similar to the chlorine.
- It is a less powerful oxidizing agent as compared to the chloride ion and that too because of weaker hydration of the bromide ion.
- The electron affinity of this metal is very high and much similar to the chlorine.
- It is a less powerful oxidizing agent as compared to the chloride ion and that too because of weaker hydration of the bromide ion.
- A metal-bromine bond is also weaker than the corresponding metal-chlorine bond.
Certain Facts About Bromine
- This element is a bleach and is poisonous in fluid form, the vapors of it are dangerous for human skin, eyes and the respiratory tract.
- It can also cause severe burns, a concentration of 1 ppm can lead to eye-watering and one can start to cough when inhalation of concentration below 10 ppm occurs.
Chemical Properties Of Krypton
What is Krypton?
- Krypton is a chemical element and a rare gas of the Group 18 with atomic number 18 and symbol Ar in the periodic table .
- This gas is almost three times heavier than the air.
- It is colourless, tasteless, monatomic and odourless.
- This gas is more plentiful in Earth’s atmosphere as its traces are present in minerals and meteorites. Earth’s atmosphere contains 1.14 parts per million of the volume of Krypton.
Uses Of Krypton
- It is used in various electric and fluorescent lamps and also in a flash lamp that is employed in high-speed photography.
- They could even react with the very reactive gas fluorine .
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